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Simple Past Tense Formula :  Verbal : Subject + Verb 2 + Object + Complement Non Verbal : Subject + Was/were+ Complement Function : To express an event that was happened or finished in the past.  Example :  Verbal  (+) The nurse went to the hospital yesterday (-) The nurse did not go to the hospital yesterday (?) Did the nurse go to the hospital yesterday ?  (-?) did not the nurse go to the hospital yesterday?  Non Verbal  (+) They were not  bad kid (-) They were not  bad kid (?) Were They  bad kid ?  (-?) Were not  they  bad kid ?  Past Progressive / Continuous Tense Formula :  Verbal : Subject + was/were+ Verb Ing + Complement Non Verbal : Subject + was/were+being + Complement Function : To express an action that was going at the time on the past.  Example :  Verbal : (+) They were working when I called them (-) They were not working when i called them (+?) Were They working when I called them?  (-?) Were not They working when I called them?  Non Verbal :  (+) She was being sad when

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SOLIDARITY AND POLITENESS Solidarity     Solidarity or intimacy are given linguistic expression by address systems consisting of a T/V distinction and address terms. This way, speakers are given the chance to either be more formal or less formal with their interlocutor on certain occasions. Tu and Vous ·          This distinction began as a difference between plural and singular. ·          IV century : the use of plural vous was to address the emperor. There were two emprors : one in Constatinople and another in Rome, but   the empaire was administravtily unified. By addressing one, you were in fact addressing both emperors. ·          As a consequence, the medieval uper class began to use V-forms among them to show mutual respect and politeness ·          Lower classes used mutual T forms. ·          Upper classes used T to address lower classes, but received V addressing. ·          Asymmetrical T/V usage symbolized a power relationship. ·          Symmetri

WORD AND CULTURE Whorf    The claim that the structure of a language influence how its speaker how its speaker view the world is today most usually associated with the linguist sapir and his student whorf, a chemical engineer by training, a fire prevention engineer by vocation and a linguist by avocation. Kinship     One intrestin way in which people use language in daily living is to refer to various kinds of kin. There is considerable literature on kinship terminology, describing how people in various parts of the world refer to relative by blood and marrriage. Kinshp systems are a universal feature of language. Taxonomies     A folk taxonomy is a way of classifying a certain part of reality so that it makes some kind of sense to those who have to deal with it. Color     Our world is a world of color but the amount of color varies from place to place and time to time. Except to those linded to it, color is all around but it is not everywhere treated in the sa

LANGUAGE VARIATION A.     Defenition      Language variation is a core conception sociolinguistics. Variation is a characteristic of language; there is more than one way of saying the same thing. Speaker may vary pronuciation (accent), word choice (lexicon), or morphology and syntax (sometimes called “grammar”). B.      Regional Variation      According (wisniewski 2007) regional variation of languages is also subject to linguistic investigations. General descriptions of languages focusing on pronunciation, or grammar usually provide information about the standard variety of a given language, nonetheless, that does not mean that is is in any respect better than its other varieties.The study of regional variation in English is sometimes known as dialectonology. C.     Linguistic Variable      Examples from african amrican english, the systematic, rule – governed variety of English used predominantly by African Americans : ·          Phonetics : The vowelss in “trap

SPEECH COMMUNITIES A. Defenition     Speech community is a group of speakers who share a language and patterns of language use. It means that the definition of a speech community is a group of people who speak same language and share same dialect, word and grammar rule of a language as a standarf. These people also share ttheir understanding at least one langauge, so that they can communicate each other. For instance, in transgender communities, they use particular vocabulary such as”akika” to change meaning of word “Aku” and “Bagindang” means “begitu”. B. Intersecting Communicaties    The fact that people use expression such as javanesse, sundas and balis speech indicate that they have some ideas of how a “typical” person from each place refered as intersecting communities. C. Why   Does  Speech Communities Exist ?   1.       Trends (usually use in every place) 2.       Interesting with one language  3.       Mutual  intelligibility because they use the same lang